![]() ![]() More precisely, according to the Temporal Sampling (TS) theory ( Goswami, 2011 Goswami et al., 2014), such atypical neural entrainment is associated with an impairment in the perception and discrimination of amplitude envelope (AE) rise times (i.e., the rates of change of modulation onsets in the amplitude envelope) of sounds. An atypical oscillatory neural activity in the auditory cortex may contribute to the development of atypical functioning of the left-hemisphere reading network ( Lallier et al., 2017 Cantiani et al., 2019), which was suggested to ultimately hinder the phonological and reading development in children with DD ( Goswami et al., 2011 Giraud and Ramus, 2013). More precisely, neurophysiological and cognitive evidence led authors to formulate the hypothesis according to which musical and auditory training could have a positive impact on phonological and reading difficulties, by enhancing auditory temporal processing abilities, which are putatively compromised in children with DD (for a review, see Hämäläinen et al., 2013). In the domain of reading difficulties, because of more precise identification criteria, specific conjectures about the allegedly involved mechanisms have been proposed with reference to DD rather to reading impairment defined in other ways. The acquisition of sublexical knowledge is indeed crucial for learning letter-sound correspondence rules (i.e., phonological decoding) and, thus, for successful reading. In addition to that, evidence from behavioural studies showed concurrent deficiencies in phonological awareness, namely, the representation, storage, and retrieval of speech sounds ( Ramus et al., 2013). ![]() Given the multidimensional clinical manifestation of DD, several etiological theories of DD (which can be tentatively extended to general reading impairments) have been posited, among which the magnocellular theory (e.g., Stein, 2001), the visuo-spatial attention deficit hypothesis (e.g., Franceschini et al., 2012), and a multifactorial neurocognitive explanatory model ( Menghini et al., 2010). Such difficulties may stem from a dysfunctional grapheme-phoneme mapping (i.e., the process of mapping print letters to the sounds of one’s language) ( Snowling and Hulme, 2012). The behavioural manifestations of reading impairments, and specifically DD, include an inaccurate and/or slow decoding of written language, resulting in a hesitant and effortful reading. They can be associated with a general learning impairment, environmental problems, or a specific learning disorder in the ability of reading, namely, developmental dyslexia (DD) ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Reading difficulties are common among students in paediatric age and can potentially hinder academic learning. ![]() These findings support the hypothesis of a transfer effect of musical and auditory training on phonological and literacy skills in children with reading difficulties. Nevertheless, significantly larger improvements of phonological abilities, relative to the control conditions, were overall reported. The reviewed studies showed that musical and auditory interventions yielded a positive, but not consistent, effect on reading. Eighteen studies have been categorized according to the type of the main training activity – either specific auditory training or more broad music training – and the combination with reading exercises. To draw a clear picture of the remedial effects of music-based and auditory-based interventions, the present review of the literature included studies on struggling readers only. However, to date, the meta-analyses on this topic did not differentiate the studies on typical children from those on children with reading difficulties. Several studies had explored the effect of music training on reading development, showing mixed results. Remediation of reading difficulties through music and auditory-based interventions in children with impairments in reading (such as developmental dyslexia) has been suggested in light of the putative neural and cognitive overlaps between the music and language domains. ![]()
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